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In contrast to Lao-tzu’s stress on natural simplicity, Confucius expanded on the traditional
institutions and ideals of the Chou elite. Accordingly, the Mandate of Heaven bestows not only
the authority to rule on the most worthy lineage, but provided an ethical imperative for all of
humanity, nobles and commoners alike. In particular, everyone should strive to become a
"gentleman" (chün-tzu) by cultivating the virtues (te)—in the main, benevolence, filial piety,
wisdom, courage, trustworthiness, reverence, respectfulness—which enabled a man to discern
the morally right action (yi) in a given situation and to follow the traditional rules of conduct (li).
Government, whose offices gentlemen should fill, ought to provide for the people like a father
for his children, meeting their material needs, prohibiting and punishing wrongdoing, and
making people better by setting a virtuous example and guiding them with proper conduct.
Although punishments are needed for the depraved, most people will obey from trust in the
virtue of a ruler who benefits them. In other words, political order ought to be once more a
reflection of the family, where authority rests on mutual sentiments rather than coercion.
Mo-tzu, finally, challenged the followers of Confucius with a radically utilitarian teaching.
The family is not a natural community of virtue; for, in the beginning, before there was
government, men lived as self-seeking individuals in constant strife. But the prosperity and
security of each is tied up with the prosperity and security of all. To draw the right conclusion
from this interdependence is to engage in universal love, the highest precept of Moism (the
movement inspired by Mo-tzu). Nonetheless, there must be a hierarchically organized state under
a ruler who is inspired by Heaven and uses rewards and punishments to maintain the peace. For
the self-aggrandizing wars, extravagant ceremonies (prescribed by li), and luxurious enjoyments
of the nobility are wasteful, depriving the people of the necessities in security, food, shelter, and
clothing. The officials of the state should be drawn from all classes based on merit in the
Convention