The remainder of this paper consists of three sections: The first puts the neoclassical
realist treatment of the state in theoretical context. I discuss the conceptions of the state, and by
extension the balance-of-power, found in classical realism and neorealism. I also discuss effort to
empirically test Waltz's hypotheses on the emulation and diffusion of military practices. The
second section sets forth the resource extraction model of the state in neoclassical realism. I posit
several hypotheses about the circumstances under which domestic variables—state power and
national political power, path dependence, ideology and nationalism—are more likely to facilitate
or inhibit a state's ability to adapt to changes in its strategic environment through emulation or
innovation. I use various historical cases to illustrate the plausibility of those hypotheses. The
conclusion discusses some directions for future research.
The State in Classical Realism and Neorealism
In order to understand the "resource extraction model" of the state in neoclassical
realism, we must first distinguish it from the treatment of the state found in its theoretical
forbearers: the classical realism of Hans Morgenthau, E.H. Carr, Arnold Wolfers, Henry
Kissinger, and Edward Gulick and the neorealism of Kenneth Waltz. Neoclassical realism
incorporates the complex model of state-society relations implicit in the writings of many
twentieth century classical realists, while building upon neorealist insights about the constraints
of anarchy and relative power distributions on the behavior of states.
Classical Realism on the State and the Balance-of-power
Classical realism is a primarily concerned with the sources and uses of national power in
international politics and the problems that leaders encounter in conducting foreign policy. These
issues lead the analyst to focus on the power relations among states as well as the character of
states and their relation to domestic society. Twentieth century classical realists have an implicit
notion that the state is both distinct from and the agent of the nation or society.
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Convention