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If You Build a Political Website Will They Come? The Supply and Demand Model of New Technology, Social Capital, and Civic Engagement in Britain
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‘I
F YOU BUILD A POLITICAL WEBSITE
…’
N
ORRIS AND
C
URTICE
8/20/2004
1:16
PM
2
The rise of knowledge societies represents one of the most profound transformations that
have occurred in recent decades. The diffusion of information and communication technologies (ICTs) promises to have major social consequences by expanding access to education and training, broadening channels of expression and social networks, as well as revolutionizing the nature of work and the economy. The primary impact of this development has been evident in affluent societies such as the United States, Sweden, and Britain, but the Internet has also been widely regarded as an important instrument for social change in poorer nations around the globe (UN 2002; Franda 2002). The core issue for this study concerns the social and political consequences of the rise of knowledge societies, in particular the capacity of the Internet for strengthening democratic participation, social capital, and civic engagement.
To consider these issues, Part I summarizes debates about the impact of the Internet on
the public sphere. The main influence of this development, it is theorized in a market model, will be determined by the ‘supply’ and ‘demand’ for electronic information and communications about government and politics. Demand, in turn, is assumed to be heavily dependent upon the social characteristics of Internet users and their prior political and social orientations. Given this understanding, the study predicts that the primary impact of knowledge societies in democratic societies will be upon facilitating cause-oriented and civic forms of political activism, thereby strengthening social movements, voluntary associations, and interest groups, more than upon conventional channels of political participation, exemplified by voting, parties, and election campaigns. Part II summarizes the sources of data and the key measures of political activism used in this study, drawing upon the British Social Attitudes Survey, 2003. Part III examines the evidence for the relationship between use of the Internet and indicators of civic engagement. The conclusion in Part IV summarizes the results and considers the broader implications for governance, society, and democracy.
Part I: Theories of the impact of knowledge societies on democracy
There are multiple theories about how the growth of knowledge societies could potentially
influence civic engagement in contemporary democracies. Four main perspectives can be identified in the literature.
The Internet as a virtual Agora
The most positive view is held by cyber-optimists who emphasize the Panglossian
possibilities of the Internet for the involvement of ordinary citizens in direct, deliberative, or ‘strong’ democracy. Digital technologies are thought to hold promise as a mechanism facilitating alternative channels of civic engagement, exemplified by political chat-rooms, remote electronic voting in elections, referenda, and plebiscites, and the mobilization of virtual communities, thereby revitalizing levels of mass participation in public affairs (Budge 1996, Schwartz 1996, Rash 1997, Rheingold 1993, Barber 1998). This view was certainly popular as the Internet rapidly expanded in the United States during the mid-1990s and the radical potential of digital technologies for society and democracy continues to be expressed by enthusiasts today (Gilder 2000). For example, Hauben and Hauben (1997) argue that by bringing people together, the Internet can help rebuild a sense of community and trust (see also Wellman and Guilia, 1999). Empirical backing for this view has come from analysis of the Pew Internet and American Life Project which suggests that Internet users had wider social networks than non-users (Ranney, 2000; Robinson et al, 2000; Pew 2001; Uslaner 2004), a result that has been replicated by the British Social Attitudes survey (Gardner and Oswald, 2001).
Moreover the general claim that the knowledge society will revive civic life in local
communities and stimulate widespread citizen deliberation in affairs of state, so that the Internet functions like a virtual Agora, while attractive as a normative ideal, became less plausible once it was widely recognized by many observers that substantial disparities exist in who becomes involved in digital politics. The survey evidence from many countries indicates that those who take advantage of the opportunities for electronic civic engagement are often activists who were
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| | Authors: Norris, Pippa. and Curtice, John. |
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‘I
F YOU BUILD A POLITICAL WEBSITE
…’
N
ORRIS AND
C
URTICE
8/20/2004
1:16
PM
2
The rise of knowledge societies represents one of the most profound transformations that
have occurred in recent decades. The diffusion of information and communication technologies
(ICTs) promises to have major social consequences by expanding access to education and
training, broadening channels of expression and social networks, as well as revolutionizing the
nature of work and the economy. The primary impact of this development has been evident in
affluent societies such as the United States, Sweden, and Britain, but the Internet has also been
widely regarded as an important instrument for social change in poorer nations around the globe
(UN 2002; Franda 2002). The core issue for this study concerns the social and political
consequences of the rise of knowledge societies, in particular the capacity of the Internet for
strengthening democratic participation, social capital, and civic engagement.
To consider these issues, Part I summarizes debates about the impact of the Internet on
the public sphere. The main influence of this development, it is theorized in a market model, will
be determined by the ‘supply’ and ‘demand’ for electronic information and communications about
government and politics. Demand, in turn, is assumed to be heavily dependent upon the social
characteristics of Internet users and their prior political and social orientations. Given this
understanding, the study predicts that the primary impact of knowledge societies in democratic
societies will be upon facilitating cause-oriented and civic forms of political activism, thereby
strengthening social movements, voluntary associations, and interest groups, more than upon
conventional channels of political participation, exemplified by voting, parties, and election
campaigns. Part II summarizes the sources of data and the key measures of political activism
used in this study, drawing upon the British Social Attitudes Survey, 2003. Part III examines the
evidence for the relationship between use of the Internet and indicators of civic engagement. The
conclusion in Part IV summarizes the results and considers the broader implications for
governance, society, and democracy.
Part I: Theories of the impact of knowledge societies on democracy
There are multiple theories about how the growth of knowledge societies could potentially
influence civic engagement in contemporary democracies. Four main perspectives can be
identified in the literature.
The Internet as a virtual Agora
The most positive view is held by cyber-optimists who emphasize the Panglossian
possibilities of the Internet for the involvement of ordinary citizens in direct, deliberative, or
‘strong’ democracy. Digital technologies are thought to hold promise as a mechanism facilitating
alternative channels of civic engagement, exemplified by political chat-rooms, remote electronic
voting in elections, referenda, and plebiscites, and the mobilization of virtual communities,
thereby revitalizing levels of mass participation in public affairs (Budge 1996, Schwartz 1996,
Rash 1997, Rheingold 1993, Barber 1998). This view was certainly popular as the Internet rapidly
expanded in the United States during the mid-1990s and the radical potential of digital
technologies for society and democracy continues to be expressed by enthusiasts today (Gilder
2000). For example, Hauben and Hauben (1997) argue that by bringing people together, the
Internet can help rebuild a sense of community and trust (see also Wellman and Guilia, 1999).
Empirical backing for this view has come from analysis of the Pew Internet and American Life
Project which suggests that Internet users had wider social networks than non-users (Ranney,
2000; Robinson et al, 2000; Pew 2001; Uslaner 2004), a result that has been replicated by the
British Social Attitudes survey (Gardner and Oswald, 2001).
Moreover the general claim that the knowledge society will revive civic life in local
communities and stimulate widespread citizen deliberation in affairs of state, so that the Internet
functions like a virtual Agora, while attractive as a normative ideal, became less plausible once it
was widely recognized by many observers that substantial disparities exist in who becomes
involved in digital politics. The survey evidence from many countries indicates that those who
take advantage of the opportunities for electronic civic engagement are often activists who were
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