Due to these limitations of the human mind, the way something is presented is
very important, since “the same decision can be framed in different ways and
different frames lead to different decisions” (Berejikian, 2002: 171).
decision-makers often rely on well-known historical analogies to simplify a
complex decision-making problem (Jervis, 1976; Khong, 1992). Another shortcut
in information processing is the categorization of things, something that often
leads to stereotyping. Schematic images interpret information “in directions
consistent with the characteristics of the ideal stereotype” (Herrmann et al., 1997:
412). Visuals are associated and related to other images, and when subjects are
given a limited piece of information, they automatically assume that all other
attributes associated to the ideal type of this image also apply.
Cognitive limitations and the pressure of time constraints imply that a decision-
maker makes policy choices according to a bounded conception of rationality.
Time constraints also make it difficult for decision-makers to acquire alternative
and different sources of information. Under these circumstances it seems
probable that media frames become particularly important: “Framing focuses on
the interpretation or implication of the data, not the data per se /…/ This makes
the concept of the frame ... a rhetorical weapon” (Garrison, 2001: 778). The
assumption being that how incoming information is portrayed or framed will
influence how decision-makers themselves perceive and process new information.
Information is acquired from different sources, such as through interpersonal
communication and various forms of media. Although all new information is
interpreted according to certain mental processes and filters, information received
by word of mouth or through reading an article or by gaining information through
visuals has different implications for how the information will be received.
4
Most works on framing effects are drawn from Kahneman and Tverksy’s well-known study on prospect
theory, focusing on the concepts of risk-aversion and risk-proneness in relation to prospected gains and
losses. How frames, and images in particular, influence the cognitive process if no gains or losses are
involved is still a rather uncovered area.
9
Convention