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played an active role in opposing or in some cases supporting the proposed referenda. During
the 2004 elections four questions of this type appeared on the ballot. This paper considers earlier
findings and squares them with the results of the 2004 elections. In short, it is somewhat of a
longitudinal study.
Oklahoma’s populist roots, diverse religious population with pockets or counties that
have higher concentrations of certain faiths than others make it an ideal state to conduct a study
such as this one. It is one of 25 states that allow ballot initiatives and referenda. Citizens and
public officials have recently taken advantage of this opportunity to place moral policy type
issues on the ballot.
Oklahoma has a long history of direct democracy. Oklahoma became a state in 1907 in
the midst of the Progressive era and its constitution reflects its populist roots. It includes a
mechanism for people to vote on laws from the polling booths. Half of the states in the union
have some feature of direct democracy. The citizens of Oklahoma have not shied away from
voting on referenda and ballot initiatives, averaging about 7 per year. These referenda range
from the mundane (millage rates, property tax exemptions, contracts for university presidents) to
the salient (a ban on cock fighting, abolishing closed shop labor agreements, contracts for
university presidents).
Some of the more salient ballot measures have involved moral issues. Haider-Markel and
Meier (1996:333) note that a moral issue or policy typically follows a pattern in which “at least
one advocacy coalition…portray[s] the issue as one of morality or sin and use[s] moral
arguments in its policy advocacy.” The issues considered in this study fit this model. Religious
groups in Oklahoma have been involved in portraying issues in moral terms on a number of
referenda dating back to the 1959 repeal of prohibition.
Convention