Doubt Foreclosed
1
Introduction*
“9-11” created acute uncertainties as Americans struggled to understand hijack attacks, anthrax scares and
an undeclared “war.” Information restrictions marginalized contentious perspectives, constructed
impressions of certainty, and contributed to a “spiral of silence” whereby alternative viewpoints were
inhibited by perceived sanctions (Noelle-Newman, 1980).
How could discerning citizens trust celebrity journalists eager, like Dan Rather, to “line up” for
their “commander-in-chief”? What about downsized network newsrooms, their international coverage
reduced 65% since 1989 (Tyndall Report cited in Media Tenor, 2002)? Or media conglomerates, whose
CEOs ranked amongst the best rewarded of corporate plutocracy? Centuries’ experience of State-media
propaganda counseled extreme wariness (Jowett and O’Donnell, 1999); likewise, memories of State use of
media as conduits during the Gulf War (Kellner, 1992).
This chapter explores State uses of media (particularly U.S. newspapers) following 9-11, and
media contributions to war propaganda. It draws on comparative reading, Internet and database searches.
It focuses mainly on the narrow range of media coverage and investigation in the few months immediately
following 9-11. A significant opening-up of media discussion from Spring 2002 occurred after the
Administration’s immediate war policies seemingly had been achieved (although the impression that they
had been achieved may itself have been a propaganda construction), creating only a brief window of
opportunity for (controlled) public discussion before the anticipated onset of a “pre-emptive” but otherwise
more conventional war, this time against Iraq. (The reader will bear in mind that developments will
inevitably throw further light on these contentious issues).
Initial Discourses
Entirely contrary to the impression nurtured by the Bush Administration and compliant mainstream media
______________________________________________________________________________________
*I am grateful to Ms. Sara Carter, student intern with the Department of Communication at Cal Poly
Pomona, for her editorial assistance in the preparation of this paper.
Convention