significance can be seen as turning points. Elder (1985:32) first defined a turning point as
“a change in state that is more or less abrupt.” These might include marriage, parenthood,
entering the work force, and the unexpected death of a parent. In these moments of stress,
strain, loss or opportunity adaptation is required. They may provide for beneficial
opportunities, they can also be harmful if not properly addressed. Within the theory,
thus, attention should be paid to specific events which may act to intensify the
challenging outcomes of each stage.
Phase 3: Attachment Revisited, Social Learning, and Morals
Peer Attachment
Building on Bowlby’s initial attachment theory, Allen and Land (1999) have
suggested that the onset of adolescence tends to result in attachments to one’s peer group.
While the benefits of attachment to parents appears to be stronger than to peers, for
individuals with insecure attachments to parents, the peer group can play an integral role
in emotional support, interpersonal relationships, leisure time, and responses to conflict.
Yet, peer attachment with groups which may further reinforced and normalized more
negative behaviour, strengthens the potential that those within the group will serve as role
models, allows one to revisit the impact of social learning through peers (Allen and Land,
1999).
Social Learning (Peers)
Through this attachment, secondary social learning processes may occur. While
having the potential to be positive, the relationship may model more pernicious
behaviour. Akers (1998) suggests that criminal behavior may be best understood as the
result of learned behaviour. His assertion is that criminal behavior will occur more
frequently if it is reinforced by the environment in social and/or non-social ways (Akers,
1998). Through differential-association one’s various associations with intimate personal
groups, such as peers, may lead to learning opportunities depending on four different
dimensions: frequency, intensity, priority, and duration; these dimensions are known as
the “modalities of association”. Frequency indicates how often the associations take
place. Intensity describes the level of intimacy with the other person (e.g., close friend
14
Convention