nation in a given year divided by the average (or mid-year) population for the same year, and it does account for differences
in the cost of living across countries. We also used a second indicator, the Human Development Index. The HDI is a metric
expectancy, childbirth, and other factors (United Nations Human Development Report, 2005). Table 2 shows the GDP +
PPP, plus the HDI for the three countries.
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Insert Table 2 about here
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Results
Our research questions focused on differences between genders and differences among countries with perceptions of
women as managers. With two dimensions, Ability and Acceptance, identified we began our analysis, using a holistic
multivariate approach (Barker & Barker, 1984; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). First, we performed a MANOVA to determine
if there were differences between gender and country groups on Ability and Acceptance as a set. This was followed by an
assessment of the underlying structure (review group centroids) for group differences. We also reviewed the canonical
discriminate correlation between the two variables for contributions of Ability and Acceptance to the set. Second, given a
significant multivariate effect, we performed an ANOVA to identify mean group differences at the univariate level. This
analysis provided us information on the direction of group differences on the individual variables.
There were significant differences for both the gender and country effects, at p< 0.01. Regarding gender, women
were significantly different from men on the combined Ability and Acceptance set using MANOVA (F = 71.78; df = 2 and
628; p < 0.01). Women had more positive perceptions, as evidenced by the higher centroids for Chinese, Chilean, and U.S.
women (see Table 3). Regarding country effects on Ability and Acceptance, US females had the highest means (53.67 and
34.07) while Chinese males had the lowest means (45.43 and 28.26), as seen in Table 3. The correlation between Ability &
Acceptance was 0.37 (p<0.01). In sum, US men and women had more positive perceptions than both Chilean and Chinese
men and women, while Chinese men and women held the least positive perceptions.
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Insert Table 3 about here
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Finally, we tested for differences between pairs of groups by making post–hoc comparisons using Scheffé tests. We
found differences at the p<.05 level among most pairs (of males and females) across all countries, with at least one notable
10
Convention