instability of the target markets, corruption in Brazil, corruption in the target markets, lack of acceptance of Brazilian
products in the target market due to negative country-of-origin image, and lack of knowledge of government export
assistance. In studies of Central American countries, Dominguez and Segueira (1991 & 1993), Clark (1995), and Aulakh
and Kotable (2000) reported the following barrier-type problems: inability to compete on the basis of price, lack of
competitive advantages and differentiation, inferior quality, negative country-of-origin image (COE), inappropriate
government incentives, exchange rate fluctuations (similar to unfavorable exchange rates from Leonidou’s list), and lack of
customer and service orientation.
Two studies conducted in South Africa provide additional insight into the barriers experienced by emerging economies
(Burgess & Oldenboom, 1997; Viviers & Kroon, 1996). The country-specific barriers identified are: geographic distance
(thus cost disadvantages) to developed markets, difficulty meeting delivery schedules, a lack of continuity in orders, low
worker productivity, labor unrest and social discontent, slow progress in liberalizing the economy, and an inward-looking
culture due to years of protectionism.
Katsikeas and Morgan (1994) and Kastikeas, Piercy, and Ionnidis (1995) examined “problems” encountered by Greek
exporters. The country-specific problems (interpreted as barriers) include: poor quality in export packaging, meeting
importer’s expectations of quality and design, poor organization of the export department, lack of available experts as
consultants, ineffective national export promotion, red tape in Greek public institutions, and currency devaluations.
Karafakioglu (1986) found that Turkish exporters confronted a wide-range of export barriers including: excessive export
bureaucracy, difficulties competing with high-tech products from INs, outdated manufacturing plants with limited capacity,
inability to compete due to high costs, insufficient product quality, expensive imports needed for production. In a study
conducted on the Island of Cyprus, Leonidou (1994) found that the major country-specific barriers to export were: inability
to offer competitive prices, lack of government incentives, lack of production capacity, and lack of competent export
personnel. Das (1994) identified the country-specific “problems” in India as: ineffective government assistance and change
in policies, lack of trained marketers, lack of capacity for export given increasing domestic demand, lack of competitiveness
on price and quality dimensions, and inferior market positions (country-of-origin disadvantage). LDC (lesser developed
country) related export barriers in Pakistan (Mohy-ud-Din & Javed, 1997) included: inferior quality, the lack of education
and productivity of workers, high cost of capital for modernization of assets, currency fluctuations, and capricious changes
in export policy, incentives and tax laws. Raymond & et al. (2001) noted that in South Korea, exporters experienced cost
related problems stemming from currency fluctuations and inflation.
5
Convention